A minority of infected individuals with a preexisting chronic inflammatory state fail to mount this early efficient response, leading to a delayed harmful inflammatory response. needed, but not too early to interfere with endogenous antiviral responses. and 30 years ago [95]. However, its activity does not translate to comparable concentrations are likely to be linked to the alkalinization of acid compartments of infected cells. This can interfere with the entry of the virus into the cell (since endocytosis is slowed by such alkalinization) and/or at a later stage of viral replication [98]. However, any potential antiviral effects of HCQ (if an effective concentration is large enough), if at all, are likely to be masked by its immunosuppressive properties, although this remains to be tested. This might explain why HCQ, while efficient against the Vero cell line infected with SARS-Cov-2, is totally inefficient in preventing infection, or in treating SARS-CoV-2-infected macaques [101]. HCQ has also been reported to be an efficient putative treatment against COVID-19 in a few clinical trials without control groups [102], findings that so far have not been confirmed in trials Mouse monoclonal to Mouse TUG with control groups [103., 104., 105., 106.]. Therefore, any use of HCQ as a putative treatment/aid in COVID-19 patients remains completely unsubstantiated. Alt-text: Box 2 In summary, despite our urgent need, only a few sound candidate antivirals have been identified. They include bariticinib, expected to block the entry of SARS-CoV-2 in ACE2-expressing cells, and favipiravir and remdesivir, which target viral replication. The Natural Antiviral Immune Response and Its Reinforcement All viruses trigger an antiviral response that relies on the immediate production of IFN in the host. The binding of IFN to its receptor IFNAR then triggers the production of IFN. Both IFN and IFN bind the receptor IFNAR, with different affinities [19]. Both IFNs trigger the expression 8-Hydroxyguanine of hundreds of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) [20,21]. All cell types are able to produce IFN, but plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) can rapidly produce large amounts 8-Hydroxyguanine of this cytokine [22]. If the production of IFN/ occurs immediately and is intense enough, the infection can be stopped. Although this remains to be shown, this is probably what happens for SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals who remain asymptomatic or paucisymptomatic, as in almost all children. However, the virus-induced IFN/ response may be fragile, due to ageing, comorbidities, and anti-IFN mechanisms that most viruses have developed throughout millions of years of coevolution with vertebrates [23,24]. In such situations, the disease replicates and this triggers a second inflammatory/immune response, which may become explosive and potentially result in a cytokine storm and ARDS. All coronaviruses (for a review see [25]) have developed multiple mechanisms for obstructing IFN production or signaling in infected cells [26., 27., 28.]. During the replication process of RNA viruses, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) can be recognized by receptors such as Toll like-receptor 3 (TLR3) or retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-like, and activate the IFN/ response. However, coronaviruses hide their dsRNA replication/transcription intermediates within double-membrane vesicles that prevent detection by TLR3 [29,30] or RIG-I [31,32]. Numerous non-structural proteins (NSPs) (1, 3, 13, and 15), accessory open reading framework (ORF) proteins (3b, 4ba, and 6), and M and N proteins from numerous coronaviruses (MERS, SARS-CoV) have also been shown to prevent IFN/ induction in human being cell lines [3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8.]. Another mechanism likely to happen but by no means reported so far, is the involvement of transforming growth element beta (TGF) in coronavirus-induced inhibition of IFN/. SARS-CoV can prevent the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of IRF3, a key transcription element for IFN induction, by a mechanism involving the viral protease papain-like protease ( PLpro) in human being promonocyte cells [33]. PLpro can significantly increase the manifestation of TGF in the same cells [33]. Also, higher serum concentrations of TGF 8-Hydroxyguanine were measured in early-stage SARS-CoV individuals compared with age-matched normal settings [34]. The same difference in serum TGF was observed between severe and slight SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals [35]. Moreover, TGF can be an effective blocker of IRF3 phosphorylation, fully avoiding its nuclear 8-Hydroxyguanine translocation and IFN signaling [36,37].
A minority of infected individuals with a preexisting chronic inflammatory state fail to mount this early efficient response, leading to a delayed harmful inflammatory response
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